1. Additional returns

2. Costs no longer incurred

3. Subtotal: 1 + 2

4. Foregone returns

5. Additional costs

6. Subtotal: 4+5

7. Difference: 3 – 6: Derived net return. If net return is negative, then the procedure is not recommended and
vice versa.

Table 1: Partial farm budget framework

Parameters

Components considered

Additional returns

Extra Calves Sold =ECS x (CP NI Group- CP I Group)

 

Additional costs incurred

  1. Cost of vaccination = VC x NoA I Group
  2. Cost of treatment of reactors= TC x (R x NoI)
  3. Cost of treatment of infected calves= TC x cumInc group I x No animals group I
  4. Tick control (NI Group and I Group)

 

Costs No longer incurred

  1. Costs with treatment of diseased calves= TC x cumI GroupNI x No animals GroupI
  2. Tick control. It is envisaged that tick control costs will be reduced by

50% among immunised animals (IGP).

Foregone returns

None since calves that died had no salvage value

ECS= Extra calves sold
b I = immunised group
c NI= Non-immunsed group
Table 2: Parameters and components considered in Partial Budget Analysis of the Financial Benefits of East Coast Fever Immunisation the infection and treatment method in Machakos County

 

No of calves/yearlings present

Start

End

Division

No of
farms

Immunised

Control

Immunised

Control

Athi River

7

58

44

79

45

Kangundo

7

11

12

16

13

Matungulu

9

16

13

19

13

Ndithini

5

15

9

15

12

Total

28

100

78

129

83

Table 3: Division and farm distribution of calves and yearlings in the controlled immunization trial against East Coast fever in Machakos County

 

 

Division

 

No. of cattle

No. of cattle with post- immunization antibody titres > 1:160

Proportion of immunized cattle
that sero- converted

Proportion of control cattle
that sero- converted

Immunised

Control

Immunised

Control

Athi River

79

46

74

2

93.7

4.3

Kangundo

16

13

14

0

87.5

0

Matungulu

19

10

17

2

89.4

20.0

Ndithini

15

14

14

1

93.3

7.1

Total

129

83

119

5

92.2

6.0

Table 4:Serological reactions of cattle in the immunised and control groups in the Immunization trial against East Coast fever in Machakos County

 

Variable

 

Levels

No. of ECF cases

Animal months-at-risk

1Incidence rate (%) per cow
month (95% CI)

 

2IRR (95% CI)

Annual Incidence
rate

 

p-value

ECF
immunization

Yes

9

1,391

0.6 (0.3 - 1.2)

1.00

0.078

 

 

No

26

730

3.5 (2.3 - 5.2)

5.50 (2.58 – 11.74)

0.427

0.00

Division

Athi

23

1,224

2.0 (1.3 – 3.1)

1.00

0.225

 

 

Ndithini

5

258

1.9 (0.6 – 4.5)

1.03 (0.39 – 2.71)

0.233

0.95

 

Kangundo

2

256

0.8 (0.1 – 2.8)

0.42 (0.10, 1.76)

0.094

0.23

 

Matungulu

5

382

1.3 (0.4 – 3.1)

0.70 (0.26 – 1.83)

0.157

0.46

Breed

Indigenous

31

1,605

1.9 (1.3 – 2.7)

1.00

0.232

 

 

Exotic

4

517

0.8 (0.0 – 3.2)

0.22 (0.03 – 1.83)

0.093

0.13

Age

Calf

29

1,290

2.2 (1.5 – 3.2)

1.00

0.270

 

 

Yearling

5

723

0.7 (0.2 – 1.6)

0.31 (0.12 – 0.79)

0.083

0.02

 

Adult

0

105

0

0

0

0.99

Sex

Male

18

658

2.7 (1.6 – 4.3)

1.00

0.328

 

 

Female

17

1,463

1.2 (0.7 – 1.9)

0.42 (0.22 – 0.82)

0.139

0.01

Tick control

Yes

15

1,643

0.9 (0.5 – 1.5)

1.00

0.110

 

 

No

19

472

4.0 (2.4 – 6.3)

4.50 (2.35 – 8.98)

0.483

0.00

Tick challenge

Yes

28

1,123

2.5 (1.7 – 3.6)

1.00

0.299

 

 

No

7

998

0.7 (0.3 – 1.4)

0.28 (0.12 – 0.64)

0.084

0.00

Season

Wet

21

905

2.3 (1.4 – 3.5)

2.01 (1.03 – 3.96)

 

0.04

 

Dry

14

1,216

1.1 (0.6 – 1.9)

1.00

0.138

 

Dipping
frequency

0 - 4

12

277

4.3 (2.2 – 7.6)

3.35 (1.57 – 7.15)

0.520

0.00

5 - 8

8

685

1.2 (0.5 – 2.3)

0.90 (0.38 – 2.12)

0.140

0.81

 

> 8

15

1159

1.3 (0.7 – 2.1)

1.00

0.155

 

Herd size

 

 

 

 

0.99 (0.99 – 1.00)

 

0.06

1IRR Incidence Rate Ratio 2CI Confidence Interval
Table 5: Univariate analysis for exposure to Theileria parva infection in a controlled immunisation trial against East Coast fever in Machakos County

Variable

Level

1IRR

95% 2CI

Std. Err.

p-value

Immunization

Control

0.20

0.09-.44

0.08

0.00

 

Vaccinated

1.00

 

 

 

Division

Kangundo

0.26

0.06-1.19

0.20

0.08

 

Matungulu

0.32

0.11-0.91

0.17

0.03

 

Ndithini

0.81

0.29-2.24

0.42

0.68

 

Athi

 

 

 

 

Age

Yearling

0.27

0.10-0.73

0.14

0.01

 

Adult

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.99

 

Calf

1.00

 

 

 

Sex

Female

2.18

1.09-4.36

0.77

0.03

 

Male

1.00

 

 

 

Season

Wet

2.00

0.99-4.02

0.71

0.05

 

Dry

1.00

 

 

 

Herd size

 

0.99

0.99-1.00

0.00

0.02

1IRR Incidence Rate Ratio 2sup>CI Confidence Interval
Table 6: Multivariable analysis for exposure to Theileria parva infection in cattle in a controlled immunization trial against East Coast fever in Machakos Count

Item Category*

Cost in USD.

Percentage of total cost

Per farm per animals

Stabilate production

Variable

4.29

1.13

16.48

Blocking drugs

Variable

1.81

0.48

6.96

Consumable items

Variable

5.70

1.60

21.9

†Labour (monitoring)

Fixed

-

-

 

Transportation

Fixed

0.95

0.25

3.65

Professional charges

Fixed

13.33

3.50

51.22

Total

 

26.02

6.96

 
*Parameters costed per animal (animal-dependent) were termed as “variable” while those costed per whole farm were termed as fixed
†No reactors are expected when 30% oxytetracylines formulation. This eliminates the need for monitoring
Table 7:Estimate cost of the various components in ECF immunization in Kenya

Parameter

Value

Source

Immunized Non immunized

No of calves (NoA)

129

83

Study data

Market value of a calf (CP)

*Ksh.6,347

Ksh.6,347

Study data

ECF cumulative incidence (CumInc)

7.76

42.74

Study data

ECF cumulative mortality (CumMort)

0

5

Study data

Vaccine Cost (Ksh) VC

Ksh.522

 

Market price

Cost of treatment (Ksh) TC

Ksh.258

Ksh.258

Market price

Percentage of reactors to vaccination (R)

0

 

Study data

Cost of tick control Annual basis per animal (TCA)

Ksh.205.9

Ksh.205.9

Study data

*Based on field data from elsewhere, the price of immunised calves is expected to increase by at least 50%
Table 8: East Coast Fever immunisation by the infections and treatment method in Machakos County

Parameter

Additional returns: N/B accurate records of extra calves sold as a result of immunization not available

Additionalcosts
Cost of vaccination Ksh. 67,338.00
Cost of treatment of infected calves-immunised group Ksh. 258,268.30 Tick control Ksh.43,650.80

Costs no longer incurred
Treatment of diseased cattle Ksh. 915,234.4 (Non-immunized calves) Tick control Ksh. 13,280.60
Net return = Ksh (915,234.4 + 13,280.6) – (67,338.0 +258,268.3 + 43,650.8)
= 559,257.90
Average net return per calf = Ksh. 2,638.00

Table 9: Net return of immunization against ECF in Machakos County
Figure 1: Map of the study area
Figure 2: The trend of the total cost per animal on sensitivity analysis of the total number of animals immunized per farm

Nutrition is the root over which development depends. If children do not get proper amount of macro and micronutrients, they become ill, suffer from severe deficiencies and diseases that continues up to adulthood and even the consequences are lifelong and sometimes results into death.

Balanced nutritional diet is the key for children’s overall development. Under-nutrition not only affects physical growth and maturation which ultimately affect growth rate, body weight and height but also adversely affect the motor and mental development. Malnourishment causes children to have less energy and less interest for learning which negatively affects cognitive development and academic performance. A balanced diet must contain adequate amount of carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamins, minerals and fibres. Each of these nutrient plays an important role in overall growth and development of children. Although all nutrients are required for brain development, few nutrients have higher impact on early brain development including protein, fat, iron, zinc, iodine, choline and vitamin B12. Iodine is important for cognitive development. Especially in pregnant women, it is a vital nutrient responsible for brain development all over the world. Prevention of iodine deficiency while pregnancy leads to healthy brain development of the foetus. Iron is an integral part of haemoglobin, which supplies oxygen for the brain to perform proper function. Likewise, choline is also an essential nutrient which helps in formation of neurotransmitter and responsible for construction of human intelligence.

Another vital micronutrient, which contributes in brain development is zinc. Though, the association between zinc deficiency with brain development are unclear, it appears that deficiency of zinc may result into children’s inappropriate neuropsychologic functioning, activity, or motor development and therefore negatively affects cognitive performance. Therefore, adequate nutrition becomes a pillar for children’s overall growth and development.